Tanthauzo ndi gulu la zipangizo zatsopano: New materials refer to those materials that have just appeared or are already developing and have excellent properties and special functions that traditional materials do not have. Palibe malire omveka bwino pakati pa zipangizo zatsopano ndi zipangizo zamakono. Zida zatsopano zimapangidwa pamaziko a zinthu zachikhalidwe.
Kodi zida zatsopano zimafotokozedwa bwanji ndikugawidwa? Tiyeni choyamba tione tanthauzo la zipangizo zatsopano:
Zida zatsopano zimatchula zinthu zomwe zatuluka kapena zomwe zikukula kale ndipo zili ndi zinthu zabwino kwambiri komanso ntchito zapadera zomwe zida zachikhalidwe zilibe.
Palibe malire omveka bwino pakati pa zipangizo zatsopano ndi zipangizo zamakono. Zida zatsopano zimapangidwa pamaziko a zinthu zachikhalidwe.
Zida zachikhalidwe zitha kupangidwa kukhala zida zatsopano kudzera mukusintha kwapangidwe, kapangidwe, kupanga ndi kukonza kuti zinthu ziziyenda bwino kapena kukhala ndi zatsopano.
Tanthauzo ndi gulu la zipangizo zatsopano
Monga maziko ndi kalambulabwalo waukadaulo wapamwamba, zida zatsopano zimakhala ndi ntchito zosiyanasiyana.
Pamodzi ndi ukadaulo wazidziwitso ndi biotechnology, zakhala minda yofunika kwambiri ndi yodalirika kwambiri m’zaka za zana la 21.
Monga zipangizo zachikhalidwe, zida zatsopano zitha kugawidwa m'njira zosiyanasiyana monga kapangidwe kake, ntchito ndi gawo la ntchito.
Magulu osiyanasiyana amalumikizana komanso amapangidwa. Pakadali pano, zida zatsopano nthawi zambiri zimagawidwa m'magawo akulu otsatirawa malinga ndi magawo ogwiritsira ntchito komanso malo omwe ali ndi kafukufuku waposachedwa:
Zida zamagetsi zamagetsi, zida zatsopano zamagetsi, ma nanomatadium, zida zapamwamba zophatikiza, zida zapamwamba za ceramic, zipangizo zachilengedwe zachilengedwe, zida zatsopano zogwirira ntchito (kuphatikizapo zipangizo zotentha kwambiri za superconducting, maginito zipangizo, mafilimu a diamondi, zida zogwirira ntchito za polima, ndi zina.), biomedical zipangizo, zida zamapangidwe apamwamba, zipangizo zanzeru, nyumba zatsopano ndi mankhwala zipangizo zatsopano, ndi zina.
Zipangizo zamagetsi zimatanthawuza zinthu zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito m'magawo a microelectronics, ukadaulo wa optoelectronic ndi zinthu zatsopano zoyambira, makamaka kuphatikiza zida za semiconductor microelectronic zoimiridwa ndi silicon imodzi ya crystal;
Optoelectronic materials represented by laser crystals; zida zamagetsi zamagetsi zomwe zimayimiridwa ndi ma dielectric ceramics ndi thermosensitive ceramics;
Magnetic materials represented by neodymium iron boron (Ndi FeB) zipangizo maginito okhazikika; optical CHIKWANGWANI kulankhulana zipangizo; zipangizo zosungiramo deta makamaka zochokera kusungirako maginito ndi optical disk yosungirako;
Piezoelectric crystals and thin film materials;
Green battery materials represented by hydrogen storage materials and lithium ion embedding materials, ndi zina.
Zida zoyambira izi ndi zinthu zake zimathandizira kutukuka kwa mafakitale amakono monga mauthenga, makompyuta, zida zamagetsi ndi matekinoloje a netiweki.
Chitukuko chonse chazinthu zamagetsi zamagetsi ndikukula kwakukulu, kufanana kwakukulu, kukhulupirika kwakukulu, komanso filimu yopyapyala, multifunctionality ndi kuphatikiza.
Malo omwe ali pano pakufufuza komanso malire aukadaulo akuphatikiza zida zamtundu wachitatu zoyimiridwa ndi zida za semiconductor zamitundu yosiyanasiyana monga ma transistors osinthika., makhiristo a photonic, makhiristo a photonic, SiC, GaN, ZnSe, zinthu zowonetsera organic, ndi zida zosiyanasiyana za nanoelectronic.
Ukadaulo watsopano wamagetsi ndi mphamvu zongowonjezwdwa ndi imodzi mwamagawo asanu ofunikira kwambiri pakukula kwachuma padziko lonse lapansi m'zaka za zana la 21..
Mphamvu zatsopano zimaphatikizapo mphamvu zoyambira monga mphamvu ya dzuwa, biomass mphamvu, mphamvu za nyukiliya, mphamvu yamphepo, mphamvu ya m'nthaka, nyanja mphamvu, ndi mphamvu ya haidrojeni mu mphamvu yachiwiri.
Zipangizo zamagetsi zatsopano zimatanthawuza zida zazikulu zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pozindikira kusintha ndi kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zatsopano komanso kupanga ukadaulo watsopano wamagetsi..
Amaphatikizanso zida za batri ya nickel-hydrogen zoimiridwa ndi zida za aloyi ya hydrogen storage electrode, lithiamu-ion batire zipangizo zoimiridwa ndi lithiamu-carbon negative maelekitirodi ndi LiCoO2 ma elekitirodi zabwino, mafuta cell zipangizo, zida zama cell a dzuwa zimayimiridwa ndi zida za Si semiconductor, ndi riyakitala nyukiliya mphamvu zipangizo zoimiridwa ndi uranium, deuterium, ndi tritium.
Malo omwe ali ndi kafukufuku waposachedwa komanso malire aukadaulo amaphatikiza zinthu zosungiramo mphamvu za hydrogen, zinthu za batri ya polima, sing'anga kutentha olimba okusayidi mafuta selo electrolyte zipangizo, ndi polycrystalline woonda-filimu solar zipangizo zipangizo.
Nanomaterials ndi mawu wamba kutanthauza ziro-dimensional, mbali imodzi, mbali ziwiri, ndi zinthu zitatu-dimensional zokhala ndi tinthu tating'onoting'ono tomwe timapangidwa ndi tinthu tating'onoting'ono tokhala ndi kukula kosakwana 100nm (0.1-100nm).
Lingaliro la nanomatadium lidapangidwa m'ma 1980s.
Popeza nanomatadium amawonetsa mawonekedwe apadera, zamagetsi, maginito, kutentha, makina, ndi makina katundu, nanotechnology yalowa mwachangu m'magulu osiyanasiyana azinthu ndipo yakhala mutu wovuta kwambiri pa kafukufuku wasayansi padziko lonse lapansi..
Malinga ndi thupi mawonekedwe, Nanomatadium zitha kugawidwa m'magulu asanu: nanopowders, nanofibers, nanofilms, nanoblocks, ndi zakumwa zolekanitsidwa ndi nanophase.
Ngakhale ma nanomatadium omwe akhala akuchulukirachulukira amakhala ndi zida za nanopowder monga calcium carbonate, woyera carbon wakuda, ndi zinc oxide, ndipo ena akadali mu gawo loyambirira la kafukufuku wa labotale, ndipo kugwiritsa ntchito kwakukulu kumayembekezeredwa 5-10 Patapita zaka, palibe kukayika kuti nanotechnology yoimiridwa ndi nanomaterials ikhudza kwambiri chitukuko cha zachuma ndi chikhalidwe chazaka za zana la 21..
Malo opezekapo pakufufuza komanso malire aukadaulo akuphatikiza: Nano-assembly zipangizo zoimiridwa ndi carbon nanotubes; zida zapamwamba za nanostructured monga nano-ceramics ndi nano-composites; kapangidwe ndi kaphatikizidwe ka nano-coating materials;
Development of nano-electronic devices such as single-electron transistors, nano-lasers ndi nano-switches, ndi C60 ultra-high-density information storage materials.
Zida zophatikizika ndi zida zokhala ndi magawo awiri kapena kupitilira apo opangidwa ndi zinthu ziwiri kapena zingapo zokhala ndi zinthu zosiyanasiyana kudzera pakuphatikizana kwathupi ndi mankhwala..
Zinthu zamtunduwu sizimangogwira bwino ntchito kuposa chilichonse chomwe chimapangidwa, komanso ali ndi zinthu zapadera zomwe zigawozo zokha zilibe.
Zida zophatikizika zitha kugawidwa m'magulu awiri malinga ndi momwe amagwiritsidwira ntchito: zida zomangika komanso zida zogwirira ntchito.
Zida zophatikizika zamapangidwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito makamaka ngati zida zonyamula katundu.
Amapangidwa ndi zigawo zolimbikitsa zomwe zimatha kunyamula katundu (monga galasi, za ceramic, kaboni, ma polima, zitsulo, ulusi wachilengedwe, nsalu, ndevu, mapepala ndi particles, ndi zina.) ndi zigawo za matrix zomwe zimatha kulumikiza zolimbitsa thupi kuti zipange zinthu zonse ndikutumiza mphamvu (monga utomoni, zitsulo, za ceramic, galasi, carbon ndi simenti, ndi zina.).
Zida zamapangidwe nthawi zambiri zimagawidwa m'magulu opangidwa ndi polima, zitsulo zopangidwa ndi zitsulo, zopangidwa ndi ceramic kompositi, ma composites opangidwa ndi kaboni ndi masimenti opangidwa ndi simenti malinga ndi matrices osiyanasiyana.
Zipangizo zogwirira ntchito zimatanthawuza zinthu zophatikizika zomwe zimapereka zina zakuthupi, mankhwala, biological ndi katundu wina kuwonjezera pa makina katundu.
Pali mitundu yambiri yazinthu zophatikizika, kuphatikizapo piezoelectric, conductive, kutsika kwa radar, maginito okhazikika, chithunzichromic, kuyamwa kwamawu, choletsa moto, bio-self-absorption, ndi zina., omwe ali ndi chiyembekezo chachikulu cha chitukuko.
Mtsogolomu, gawo la zinthu zogwirira ntchito lidzaposa lazinthu zophatikizika ndikukhala gawo lalikulu la chitukuko cha zinthu zophatikizika..
Njira yofufuzira yazinthu zophatikizika m'tsogolomu idzayang'ana kwambiri pa nanocomposites, zinthu zopangidwa ndi bionic, ndi chitukuko cha multifunctional, anzeru ndi wanzeru kompositi zipangizo.
Zinthu zachilengedwe zachilengedwe zidaperekedwa potengera kuzindikira kwa anthu za kufunikira kofunikira pakutetezedwa kwachilengedwe ndi chilengedwe komanso kuti mayiko padziko lonse lapansi akutenga njira yachitukuko chokhazikika..
Ndizochitika zosapeŵeka pakukula kwa sayansi yazinthu ndi kafukufuku waumisiri kunyumba ndi kunja.
Nthawi zambiri amakhulupirira kuti zida zachilengedwe ndi zinthu zomwe zimagwira ntchito bwino ndipo zimapatsidwa kugwirizanitsa kwabwino kwa chilengedwe..
Makhalidwe a zinthu zamtunduwu ndikuti amadya zinthu zochepa komanso mphamvu, ili ndi kuwononga pang'ono kwa chilengedwe ndi chilengedwe, ali ndi chiwongola dzanja chochuluka chobwezeretsanso, ndipo imagwirizana ndi chilengedwe m'moyo wonse kuchokera kuzinthu zopangidwa, ntchito, kutaya pakubweza ndi kubwezerezedwanso.
Makamaka kuphatikiza: zipangizo zogwirizana ndi chilengedwe, monga zinthu zachilengedwe zoyera (nkhuni, mwala, ndi zina.), biomimetic zipangizo (mafupa ochita kupanga, ziwalo zopangira, ndi zina.), zobiriwira ma CD zipangizo (matumba obiriwira, zotengera zonyamula), zipangizo zomangira zachilengedwe (zinthu zokongoletsera zopanda poizoni, ndi zina.); zinthu zowononga chilengedwe (mapulasitiki owonongeka, ndi zina.); zipangizo zachilengedwe zomangamanga, monga zipangizo zobwezeretsa chilengedwe, zipangizo zoyeretsera chilengedwe (masifa a molekyulu, ion sieve zipangizo), zachilengedwe zina zipangizo (zowonjezera zotsukira zovala zopanda phosphorous), ndi zina.
Malo opangira kafukufuku ndi mayendedwe opangira zinthu zachilengedwe ndi kapangidwe ka ma polima obwezerezedwanso. (mapulasitiki), Theoretical system of material Environment Coordination Evaluation, ndi njira zatsopano, matekinoloje atsopano ndi njira zatsopano zochepetsera chilengedwe chazinthu.
Zida zamankhwala ndi mtundu watsopano wa zida zapamwamba zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pozindikira, kuchiritsa kapena kusintha minofu ndi ziwalo za anthu kapena kupititsa patsogolo ntchito zawo.
Iwo ndi gawo latsopano komanso lomwe likutukuka muzinthu zasayansi ndiukadaulo.
Sikuti ali ndi luso lapamwamba komanso phindu lachuma, komanso zimagwirizana kwambiri ndi moyo ndi thanzi la odwala. M'mbuyomu 10 zaka, msika wazinthu zamankhwala ndi zinthu zamankhwala wakhalabe ndi kukula pafupifupi 20%.
Zida Zamankhwala
Zida zamankhwala zimagawidwa kukhala zida zachitsulo zamankhwala, mankhwala polima zipangizo, bioceramic zipangizo ndi biomedical kompositi zipangizo malinga ndi kapangidwe ndi katundu.
Zitsulo, za ceramic, ma polima ndi zida zawo zophatikizika ndizomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri pazachilengedwe.
Malinga ndi ntchito, biomedical zipangizo akhoza kugawidwa mu degradable ndi absorbable zipangizo, zida zopangira minofu ndi ziwalo zopangira, zida zomasulidwa zoyendetsedwa, bionic wanzeru zipangizo, ndi zina.
Kafukufuku ndi katukulidwe ka zinthu zamoyo ndizomwe zimakhala:
Pakatikati mwa zaka za m'ma 1980, anthu anapereka lingaliro la zipangizo zanzeru (Zida Zanzeru kapena Intelligent Material System): Zida zanzeru zimatsanzira machitidwe a moyo, amatha kuzindikira kusintha kwa chilengedwe ndikusintha chimodzi kapena zingapo zazomwe akuchita mu nthawi yeniyeni, ndikupanga zinthu zophatikizika zomwe mukufuna kapena zida zophatikizika zomwe zingagwirizane ndi malo osinthika.
Zida zanzeru ndi dongosolo lazinthu zovuta zomwe zimagwirizanitsa zipangizo ndi mapangidwe, processing wanzeru, machitidwe opangira, machitidwe owongolera ndi machitidwe a sensa.
Kapangidwe kake ndi kaphatikizidwe kake kumatenga pafupifupi magawo onse apamwamba kwambiri.
Zida zoyambira zomwe zimapanga zida zanzeru zimaphatikizapo zida za piezoelectric, mawonekedwe kukumbukira zipangizo, ulusi wa kuwala, electro-(maginito -)madzimadzi a rheological, zida za magnetostrictive ndi zida zanzeru za polima.
Kutuluka kwa zida zanzeru kudzabweretsa chitukuko cha anthu kumtunda watsopano, koma akadali mtunda wina kutali ndi siteji yothandiza.
Zofufuza zamtsogolo zikuphatikiza mbali zisanu ndi chimodzi zotsatirazi:
Zipangizo zamakina zimatanthawuza zida zauinjiniya zomwe zimakhala ndi makina amakina ngati chinthu chachikulu.
Ndizinthu zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri pazachuma cha dziko.
Kuchokera pa zofunika za tsiku ndi tsiku, nyumba mpaka magalimoto, ndege, ma satellites ndi ma roketi, onse amapeza mawonekedwe awo, kukula ndi mphamvu kudzera mumtundu wina wa chimango.
Zida zachikhalidwe monga zitsulo ndi zitsulo zopanda ferrous zili m'gululi.
Zida zamapangidwe apamwamba nthawi zambiri zimatanthawuza zida zamakina zomwe zimakhala ndi makina apamwamba kwambiri monga mphamvu, kuuma, plasticity ndi kulimba, ndikusintha mogwirizana ndi zofunikira zapadera za chilengedwe.
Amaphatikizapo zinthu zatsopano zachitsulo, zida zapamwamba za ceramic ndi zida za polima.
Malo opezekapo kafukufuku akuphatikiza: ma aloyi otentha kwambiri, zatsopano zitsulo za aluminiyamu ndi magnesium alloys, Kutentha kwambiri kwa zida za ceramic ndi ma polima aloyi.
Zida zogwirira ntchito zimatchula zinthu zomwe zimasonyeza zinthu zapadera monga magetsi, magnetism, kuwala, biology ndi chemistry kuphatikiza pazinthu zamakina.
Kuwonjezera pa chidziwitso, mphamvu, nano, biomedical ndi zinthu zina zomwe zidayambitsidwa kale, zida zatsopano zogwirira ntchito makamaka zimaphatikizapo zinthu zotentha kwambiri zotentha kwambiri, maginito zipangizo, mafilimu a diamondi, zida zogwirira ntchito za polima, ndi zina.
Malo opezekapo kafukufuku akuphatikiza: nano-ntchito zipangizo, nanocrystalline osowa padziko lapansi maginito okhazikika ndi osowa nthaka hydrogen yosungirako aloyi zipangizo, chochuluka amorphous zipangizo, zipangizo zotentha kwambiri za superconducting, maginito mawonekedwe kukumbukira aloyi zipangizo, maginito polima zipangizo, ukadaulo wokonzekera filimu ya diamondi, ndi zina.
Zida zatsopano zamakina ndi zida zoyambira zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito m'makampani opanga mankhwala, mafuta, ndi zina., makamaka kuphatikizapo organic fluorine zipangizo, organic silikoni zipangizo, ulusi wochita bwino kwambiri, zida za nano-chemical, inorganic zinchito zipangizo, ndi zina.
Zida za Nano-chemical ndi zokutira zapadera zamankhwala zakhala malo opangira kafukufuku m'zaka zaposachedwa.
Zida za ceramic zapamwamba zimatanthawuza zinthu zomwe zimagwira ntchito bwino kwambiri zopangidwa kuchokera kuyeretsedwa kwambiri, ultra-fine inorganic mankhwala monga zopangira komanso ukadaulo wapamwamba wokonzekera.
Malinga ndi zofunikira zaukadaulo waukadaulo pakugwirira ntchito kwazinthu, zopangidwa zimatha kukhala ndi piezoelectric, ferroelectric, conductive, semiconductor, maginito, ndi zina. kapena kukhala ndi zinthu zabwino kwambiri monga mphamvu zapamwamba, mkulu kulimba, kuuma kwakukulu, kuvala kukana, kukana dzimbiri, kutentha kwambiri kukana, mkulu matenthedwe madutsidwe, kusungunula kapena biocompatibility yabwino.
Zida zapamwamba za ceramic
Zida za ceramic zapamwamba nthawi zambiri zimagawidwa m'magulu atatu: zomangamanga za ceramic, zitsulo zopangidwa ndi ceramic ndi zida zogwirira ntchito.
Zambiri zama ceramic zomwe zimagwira ntchito zimagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri m'makampani amagetsi ndipo zimatchedwanso kuti zida zamagetsi zamagetsi.
Monga ceramic insulating zipangizo, zinthu za ceramic gawo lapansi, zida za ceramic zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga tchipisi, ndi capacitor ceramics, piezoelectric ceramics, ferrite maginito omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga zida zamagetsi.
Malo omwe ali ndi kafukufuku waposachedwa akuphatikiza ukadaulo wolimbitsa ndi kulimba wa zida za ceramic, ukadaulo wokonzekera ndi kaphatikizidwe wa zida za nano-ceramic, kamangidwe ka zida zapamwamba zomangira za ceramic, ndi ukadaulo wapamwamba kwambiri komanso ukadaulo wapamwamba kwambiri wa zida zamagetsi zamagetsi.
Zida zatsopano zomangira makamaka zimaphatikizapo zida zatsopano zapakhoma, zida zomangira mankhwala, zipangizo zatsopano zotetezera kutentha, zokongoletsa zomangira, ndi zina.
Mwa iwo, zida zomangira mankhwala zimaphatikizapo mapulasitiki omangira, kumanga zokutira, kumanga zotsekereza madzi, zipangizo zosindikizira, zipangizo zotetezera kutentha, zida zotsekereza mawu, zida zadothi zapadera, zomatira zomangira, ndi zina., zomwe ndi zida zatsopano zomangira zomwe dziko langa lidzayang'ana kwambiri pakupanga pa "15th Five-year Plan".
Tanthauzo la zinthu zatsopano: Zida zatsopano zimatchula zinthu zomwe zatuluka kapena zomwe zikukula kale ndipo zili ndi zinthu zabwino kwambiri komanso ntchito zapadera zomwe zida zachikhalidwe zilibe.
Palibe malire omveka bwino pakati pa zipangizo zatsopano ndi zipangizo zamakono.
Zida zatsopano zimapangidwa pamaziko a zinthu zachikhalidwe.
Zida zachikhalidwe zitha kupangidwa kukhala zida zatsopano kudzera mukusintha kwapangidwe, kapangidwe, kupanga ndi kukonza kuti zinthu ziziyenda bwino kapena kukhala ndi zatsopano.
Zida zatsopano zimagawidwa m'magulu anayi molingana ndi kapangidwe kake, kuphatikizapo zitsulo, zinthu zopanda zitsulo zopanda zitsulo, organic polima zipangizo, ndi zida zapamwamba zophatikiza.
Malinga ndi ntchito zakuthupi, pali zida zomangira ndi zida zogwirira ntchito.
Malinga ndi ntchito ndi katundu wa zipangizo zatsopano, "China New Materials Products and Technology Guidance Catalogue" imagawa zinthu zatsopano m'magawo opitilira khumi, kuphatikizapo zitsulo zatsopano, zipangizo zomangira zatsopano, zida zatsopano zamakina, zida zamagetsi zamagetsi, biomedical zipangizo, zida zatsopano zamagetsi, nano ndi zipangizo za ufa, zatsopano zophatikizika, zipangizo zatsopano zapadziko lapansi, zida zapamwamba za ceramic, zida zatsopano za kaboni, zipangizo zatsopano kukonzekera luso ndi zipangizo.
1 Zida zamagetsi zamagetsi
2 Zida zatsopano zopulumutsa mphamvu
3 Nanomaterials
4 Zida zophatikizika zapamwamba
Galasi CHIKWANGWANI, aramid, silicon carbide, graphite, boron fiber, chitsulo fiber, ndevu, zopangira kuvala zosagwira, opangidwa ndi utomoni, zotengera zitsulo, zitsulo zopangidwa ndi ceramic, zinthu za carbon/carbon composite, masamba a carbide , kulimbana zipangizo, zinthu zophatikiza
5 Zida zachitsulo zapamwamba
6 Zatsopano zamankhwala
Organic silicon, organic fluorine, zomangamanga zamapulasitiki ndi ma aloyi apulasitiki, mphira wapadera, CHIKWANGWANI chapadera, ❖ kuyanika kwapadera, firiji, mankhwala abwino
7 Zida zapamwamba za ceramic
Ma ceramics ogwira ntchito (microwave, ceramic dielectric zida zamagetsi , piezoelectric, tcheru, zowonekera) zomangamanga za ceramic (zisa, osavala, kutentha kwakukulu, mkulu kulimba, zokutira, zitsulo zopangidwa ndi ceramic)
8 Zosowa zapadziko lapansi
Mkulu-kuyera osowa dziko lapansi, zowonjezera, zolimbikitsa, maginito okhazikika, luminescence, hydrogen yosungirako
9 Zida zamaginito
Zida zofewa za maginito, maginito okhazikika, zida zojambulira maginito, maginito zipangizo
10 Zida za carbon
Mpweya wa carbon, mpweya wakuda, diamondi, graphite, carbon fiber
11 Zida zama membrane
Sefa nembanemba (organic nembanemba, inorganic nembanemba), mafilimu ogwira ntchito (kuwala, kutsekereza)
12 Superconducting zipangizo
Kukonzekera ndi kugwiritsa ntchito matekinoloje a mawaya a superconducting, midadada, ndi mafilimu.
13 Zida zamankhwala
Implants, zopangapanga, kusefa magazi, sutures
14 Zida zachilengedwe ndi zachilengedwe
Zida zopangira zachilengedwe, zobiriwira, zipangizo zowonongeka, zachilengedwe zina zipangizo
15 Zida zatsopano zomangira
Zida zotenthetsera kutentha, simenti yamphamvu kwambiri, zobiriwira zachilengedwe zomangira
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